Proposal MacArthur Foundation

MacArthur Foundation Awards Prizes is a program that was founded by Catherine T. and John D. The title of the award is a MacArthur’s Fellowship Program which is also and more known as Genius Grant (John et al, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Proposal: MacArthur Foundation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such a title was given because the nominees for these awards are considered genius. These awards require a short-listing of nearly forty candidates who are awarded prizes from the United States of America. However, a potential candidate must possess certain qualities of artistic production in order to feature in the list of nominees for the awards. Moreover, the piece of art one represents should be original and attract attention. The winners of the awards are those whose age ranges from eighteen years to eighty two years (John et al, 2008). Analytically, an individual nominee needs to possess gr eat developmental capabilities, original creativity of ideas, educational values, objective behavior, and skills for promotion of social relationships apart from being a genius in order to qualify for the awards. The nominees for awards are not allowed to apply for the awards themselves. This means that the nomination body gives recommendations to a committee of a few people who are in charge of making decisions regarding the list of nominees. After the committee makes a decision, they pass the list to the Board of Directors as well as the President of the Awards. The nominees carefully look at the decision of the committee after receiving a phone call from the foundation. On the other hand, the criterion used to select the nominees is based on the creativity and originality of their pieces of work. One does not only have to consider the creativity of the piece of work but its originality as well. In other words, creativity is not only about the masterpiece as such, but the informat ion the piece of work delivers to the audience. A potential nominee needs to exhibit characteristics of great social relationship and objective behavior in the piece of artwork presented in order to stand a chance of winning the award because the information displayed is important to the audience who touch or listen to the work. Therefore, the work should be socially acceptable to the society for its creator to be called a genius (Brockes, 2007). This means that it must present social values. For example, the movie â€Å"Think like a man, act like a woman† may not be considered the best movie but the impact it has on both men and women is tremendous. This makes a person who shoots the film a genius because he or she was able to affect the reasoning of a number of people. In summary, social and behavioral impact in any domain of work can be criteria for obtaining the status of the genius.Advertising Looking for proposal on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The educational value of a person can determine his or her level of creativity. The reason why a person is regarded as a genius due to his/her educational level is because education helps to sharpen individual’s wits (Harris, 2007). For example, the filmmakers win awards but information technology experts would be in a better position to create fiction. Therefore, an individual is considered a genius in case a person who lacks information and skills in the sphere of computers manages to create new ideas, in other words, the individual that lacked some necessary background information, nonetheless, invented, created or made something new. On the other hand, a potential candidate for the award can receive awards for the educational value in the domain of work generated; it may me mathematics since it passes knowledge. In summary, a domain of activity can be regarded as criterion for a genius creation depending on the educationa l level or value of the creator of the piece of artwork. A potential nominee needs to exhibit developmental capabilities in the artwork in order to be considered a genius in the award because there are works that lack tangibility but have great effects on the emotions of the audience. For example, a doctor who administers medication from a deadly disease that is known to have no cure can be considered a genius if a patient is healed after the drug administration. It happens so because the doctor invented a cure to the disease which had caused numerous deaths. This means that one should be considered a genius when their piece of work leads to a discovery. In conclusion, the program the MacArthur Foundation Awards Prizes is used to encourage people to be creative. It is also a good way of appreciating the efforts different individuals have put into their artistic works. A winner of the award is called a genius due to the creativity of the work done. This means that an individual nomin ee needs to possess great capabilities, original creativity of ideas, educational values, objective behavior, as well as skills for promotion of social relationships apart from being a genius in order to qualify for the awards.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Proposal: MacArthur Foundation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Brockes, E. (2007). It’s art. But is it porn? The Guardian online, 3 (7), 21-25. Harris, D. (2007). The Complete Guide to Writing Effective Award-Winning Grants: Step-By-Step Instructions. New York: Atlantic Publishing Company. John, D., Catherine, T. (2008). 30 Years of the John D. and Catherine T. New York: MacArthur Foundation. This proposal on Proposal: MacArthur Foundation was written and submitted by user Franco Klein to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How Fiber Optics Work essays

How Fiber Optics Work essays Thesis: In a fiber optic tube, the speed of light reflects from the cladding no matter what angle the fiber itself gets bent, even a full circle. Furthermore, because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light waves can travel great distances. 3. Where was Fiber Optics discovered H. Transmitting Light through Fiber Optic Cables Our current age of technology is the result of many brilliant inventions and discoveries, but it is our ability to transmit information, and the media we use to do it, that is perhaps most responsible for its evolution. Progressing from the copper wire of a century ago to todays fiber optic cable, our increasing ability to transmit more information, more quickly and over longer distances has expanded the boundaries of our technological development in all areas. Fiber optic technologies are based on the same concept as the signal fires used in ancient China. Instead of sending the signals through the open air, however, a laser sends pulses of light to their destination through a thin strand of transparent glass. At the receiving end, an optical sensor decodes the light pulses with a complex set of standard codes. In some ways, it's also similar to the way people decode the dots and dashes of Morse code. In a fiber optic tube, the speed of light reflects from the cladding no mat ter what angle the fiber itself gets bent, even a full circle. Furthermore, because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light waves can travel great distances. Craig C. Freudenrich, Ph.d defines fiber optics (optical fibers) as long, thin strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a human hair. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit light signals over long distances (par 2). Scientists at Corning Glass Works & Bell Telephone Labs, in the early 1970's, made the significant breakthroughs in optical fiber, to make it realistic to use...

11 Beautiful Blue Gemstones You Need to See

Beautiful Blue Gemstones You Need to See SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Out ofall the rainbow of colors gemstones can come in, blue gemstones are the most popular.There are a huge variety of blue gems, from delicate pale aquato richly saturated dark blue.Some stones are pure blue, while others include shades of violet, green, white, or gold. This guide explores of the most popular and beautiful gemstones. Each of these blue gemstones includes a chart with important characteristics,as well as average prices for each gemstone, how it is used in jewelry, and how it'sunique from other blue gemstones. If you are interested inpurchasing a blue gemstone or jewelry that includes a blue gemstone but aren't sure which type of stone to buy, our guide will helpyou easily compare different blue stones. At the end of this guide, there is also a section on how to choose the bestblue gemstone for you. The Blue Gemstones Agate Aquamarine Azurite Benitoite Blue Diamond Lapis Lazuli Sapphire Tanzanite Blue Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise 6 Key Gemstone Terms, Defined Before jumping into the different blue stones, let's clarify some of the key criteria used to assess gemstones. Criteria 1: Diaphaneity Also known as transparency, diaphaneity describes how light interacts with the surface of a material. There are three types of interactions. Transparent: Light can enter and exit the material (such asglass). Translucent: Light can enter and exit, but it gets distorted passing through the material (such asparchment paper). Opaque: Light cannot penetrate the surface (such aswood). Criteria 2:Hardness The harder a gemstone is, the less susceptible it is to damage.The Mohs scale measures mineral hardness on a scale of 1-10. Gemstones with a hardness of about 7.0 or less are often not recommended to be worn daily because of the high possibility of them getting scratched or otherwise damaged. Criteria 3: Specific Gravity Specific gravity measures the relative density of a gemstone. A one carat gemstone with a higher specific gravity will be slightly smaller than a one carat gemstone with a lower specific gravity. Criteria 4: Refractive Index Refractive index measures how light passes through a material. Gemstones with a higher refractive index appear more brilliant and â€Å"sparkly† than those with lower refractive indexes. Most gemstones have refractive indexes between 1.5 and 1.7. A refractive index above 2.0 is rare and seen only in a handful of gemstones. Criteria 5: Luster Luster refers to how a gemstone appears when light hits it. There are multiple categories of luster. The ones mentioned in this guide are: Adamantine: Mirror-like appearance; highest degree of luster Dull: Reflects little light, but can be enhanced by polishing Resinous: Appearance of resin or plastic Vitreous: Glass-like Waxy: Resembles wax Criteria 6: Price per Carat A carat refers to 20mg of a stone.For each gemstone, average price can vary widely depending on the quality and cut of the gem, but rough averages are given so you can get a senseof how expensive one stone is compared to the others.Price is based on cut and polished gems, not rough gems. Agate Color Range All shades of blue, often with other colors included Diaphaneity Translucent Mohs Scale Hardness 6.5-7 Specific Gravity 2.66 Refractive Index 1.53-1.54 Luster Waxy Average Price per Carat $0.50-$25 Agate, a banded form of the mineral chalcedony, comes in a variety of a variety of vivid colors, including the full spectrum of blue. These colors can be either natural or enhanced with dyes. Because of the potential variation in banding and color, agate has some of the widest variation from one stone to another seen inany mineral. You could purchase ten pieces of agate, and they could all look completely different from one another. Agate is also one of the cheapest gemstones on this list, and agate jewelry is often very reasonably priced.It is most common for agate stones to be used as pendants for necklaces since large pendantsincludemore bands of color than smaller pieces of agate would. Where it’s found: Agate is very abundant and found all over the world. What sets it apart: Its vivid bands often comprisinga variety of colors. Aquamarine Color Range Very light to dark blue, often with greenish hues Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent Mohs Scale Hardness 7.0-8.0 Specific Gravity 2.72 Refractive Index 1.57-1.58 Luster Vitreous to resinous Average Price per Carat $10-$500 Aquamarine prices can vary widely depending on the size and quality of the stone. As with most blue gemstones, stones that are a darker, more vivid blue are generally more expensive (and rarer) than light blue stones. Aquamarine is a popular gemstone and is used in many types of jewelry, although rings are often the most popular way for them to be set. Aquamarine is also the birthstone for the month of March, which helps contribute to its popularity.Aquamarine is often found in large crystals which makes it possible for large stones to be cut, polished, and set into jewelry or purchased by collectors. The largest gem-quality aquamarine ever discovered weighed over 240 pounds. Where it’s found: Most aquamarine is mined in Brazil, with other large deposits found in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. What sets it apart: Aquamarine stones are often highly transparent, causing them to catch a lot of light and sparkle more than other stones. Azurite Color Range Deep blue Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent Mohs Scale Hardness 3.5-4.0 Specific Gravity 3.7-3.8 Refractive Index 1.73-1.84 Luster Vitreous or dull Average Price per Carat $10-$100 Azurite is known for its deep blue, azure color. As opposed to many other blue gemstones, azurite rarely needs to undergo treatment to enhance its color.Due to its vivid color, azurite has been used as a pigment for hundreds of years. As opposed to many other blue gemstones, azurite is not faceted. Instead, it is cut and polished into pieces known as cabochons. When put in jewelry, azurite is often combined with deep green malachite. The two minerals are often found in the same deposit. As one of the softer stones, azurite jewelry must be handled with care, or the stones must be placed in settings that protect them from bumps and scrapes. Over time, azurite’s deep blue color can fade to green; all azurite jewelry should be safely stored away from sunlight and drafts, preferably in a closed jewelry box. Where it’s found: Azurite is one of the rarer blue stones, but significant deposits have been found in the USA, France, and Namibia. What sets it apart: It’s deep azure color. Benitoite Color Range Medium to dark blue or violet Diaphaneity Transparent to Translucent Mohs Scale Hardness 6.0-6.5 Specific Gravity 3.64 Refractive Index 1.76-1.80 Luster Vitreous Average Price per Carat $250-$5000 Benitoite is one of the world’s rarest gemstones, found in just one place in the world.Benitoite has one of the highest dispersion ratings of all gemstones, including diamond. Dispersion rating measures the ability to take white light and disperse it to other colors of the spectrum. This gives benitoite its characteristic brilliance and fire. When used in jewelry, benitoite stones tend to be small due to both their high price and the rarity of the gemstone. Where it’s found: San Benito County, California What sets it apart: It’s rarity and natural â€Å"fire†. Blue Diamond Color Range Pale to dark blue Diaphaneity Transparent Mohs Scale Hardness 10.0 Specific Gravity 3.52 Refractive Index 2.42 Luster Adamantine Average Price per Carat Treated: $1,500-$,500 Naturally Colored: $10,000 -$100,000+ Diamond is most famous as a colorless stone, but blue diamonds can be created by treating clear diamonds. Also, deposits of naturally blue diamonds have been found, but they are very rare.Blue diamonds often have a light blue color, often with a greenish tint. Diamond is the hardest natural material on earth, and it also has one of the highest refractive indexes of all gemstones.Blue diamondsare nearly impossibleto damage and can therefore be used in all types of jewelry. Diamonds are one of the most expensive gemstones, and blue diamonds can command even higher prices than regular diamonds because of their rarity and the treatment required to enhance their color. Naturally blue diamonds, because they are so rare, are significantly pricier than comparable colorless diamonds. Where it’s found: Diamonds are found worldwide, with large mines in Russia, Western Australia, and Southern Africa. What sets it apart: It’s hardness, high refractive index, and brilliant adamantine luster. Lapis Lazuli Color Range Medium-deep blue, often with white and gold mottling Diaphaneity Semi-translucent to opaque Mohs Scale Hardness 5.0-5.5 Specific Gravity 2.75 Refractive Index 1.50 Luster Dull Average Price per Carat $1-$50 In contrast to the other gemstones on this list, lapis lazuli is not a mineral. Instead, it’s a rock composed of multiple minerals including lazurite, calcite, and sparkling pyrite flecks.Since antiquity, lapis lazuli has been used for jewelry and as a dye. On the famous funeral mask of Tutankhamun, the eyebrows were made of lapis lazuli. Lapis lazuli stones are often cut into cabochons and beads to be used in bracelets, necklaces, and pendants. Some pieces are also ornately carved and then used in jewelry. Where it’s found: Lapis lazuli is found in numerous countries, but Afghanistan is the world’s leading source of the stone. What sets it apart: The contrast between the deep blue stone and sparkling golden flecks often found in lapis lazuli. Sapphire Color Range Deep blue, occasionallyclear and light blue Diaphaneity Transparent to opaque Mohs Scale Hardness 9.0 Specific Gravity 4.00 Refractive Index 1.76-1.77 Luster Vitreous to adamantine Average Price per Carat $500-$5000 Sapphire is the world’s most popular blue gemstone,beloved for its deep blue color and resistance to damage. Theyare also one of the mooreexpensive gemstones on this list. Sapphires with a more vivid, saturated blue color are more expensive than paler stones, and heat treatment is sometimes used to enhance the color of a sapphire. Sapphires that have deeply saturated color without any heat treament are significantly more expensive than sapphires that have undergone heat treatment. Sapphires are widely used in all types jewelry, and, because of their durability, wearers do not have to worry about damaging the stone. Sapphire stones also often have high clarity and a brilliant cut, enhancing their sparkle. One of the most famous pieces of sapphire jewelry is the engagement ring of Diana, Princess of Wales, now worn by Kate Middleton. The ring features a 12-carat sapphire surrounded by diamonds. Where it’s found: Sapphires are found throughout the world. The three most famous countriesfor sapphire mining are Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Pakistan. What sets it apart: It’s durability and brilliance. Tanzanite Color Range Pale to dark blue, violet Diaphaneity Transparent Mohs Scale Hardness 6.5 Specific Gravity 3.30 Refractive Index 1.69-1.70 Luster Vitreous Average Price per Carat $75-$1500 Tanzanite is one of the most newly-discovered gemstones; the single deposit was only discovered in 1967.Since then, however; tanzanite has achieved widespread popularity due to its deep blue and violet coloring.Deep blue and bluish violet tanzanite stones are the most desired (and expensive) form of the stone, but tanzanite can also come in pale hues. Most tanzanite undergoes heat treatment to deepen its blue color. Tanzanite is often used as a less expensive alternative to similarly-colored sapphire. However, tanzanite’s low degree of hardness makes it susceptible to damage, so it is often set in pendants and earrings, which are prone to fewerbumps than bracelets and rings. Tanzanite is one of the rarer gems, and some people expect deposits to run out in several decades. Because of this, tanzanite prices are expected to rise in the future. Where it’s found: Tanzanite is found at a single site, in the northern hills of Tanzania. What sets it apart: One of the most affordable deep-blue gemstones. Blue Topaz Color Range Pale to dark blue, also comes in other colors Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent Mohs Scale Hardness 8.0 Specific Gravity 3.53 Refractive Index 1.62-1.64 Luster Vitreous Average Price per Carat $5-$25 Topaz has one of the widest color ranges of any gemstone, with blue being one of the most commoncolors. Topaz’s blue color rarely occurs naturally; the stone is almost always treated to turn it blue or deepen its blue color.Additionally, topaz is pleochroic, meaning it can appear different colors depending on the direction you’re looking at it. Topaz forms some of the largest crystals of any gemstone. Brazilian deposits are particularly large, and topaz crystals have been discovered that weigh over 500 pounds and are the size of boulders. Topaz is one of the leastexpensive blue gemstones and this, coupled with its naturally large crystals, make it possible for large topaz stones to be set in jewelry at affordable prices.After topaz has been faceted, it can take such a high polish that the stone is slippery to the touch. Where it’s found: Topaz is an abundant gemstone and found in numerous countries. Significant deposits are in Brazil, Utah, and the Ural Mountains of Russia. What sets it apart: Low price and high polish. Tourmaline Color Range Light to dark blue, as well as violet-blue and greenish-blue Diaphaneity Transparent to opaque Mohs Scale Hardness 7.0-7.5 Specific Gravity 3.06 Refractive Index 1.62-1.64 Luster Vitreous Average Price per Carat Paraà ­ba: $150-$16,000 Other varieties: $5-$500 Tourmaline has one of the widest color ranges of any gemstone, and blue tourmaline can range from pale aqua to deep azure and nearly every hue in between.The most famous variety of blue tourmaline is Paraà ­ba Tourmaline(pictured above),which can come in vivid shades of blue, violet-blue, or greenish-blue not found naturally in other tourmaline stones. Paraà ­ba Tourmaline is very rare, soits prices are much higher than other varieties of tourmaline.On rare occasions, blue tourmaline also includes a cat’s eye, where light reflects off the stone in a way that resembles the slit eye of a cat. Tourmaline is used in a wide variety of jewelry, and blue tourmaline stones are often set with tourmaline of other colors for contrast and variety. Where it’s found: Paraà ­ba Tourmaline is found in Paraà ­ba, Brazil, and other forms of blue tourmaline are found in multiple sites around the world. What sets it apart: Its wide range of colors that cover nearly the entire blue spectrum. Turquoise Color Range Light-medium blue and blue-green Diaphaneity Opaque Mohs Scale Hardness 5.0-6.0 Specific Gravity 1.61-1.65 Refractive Index 2.73 Luster Waxy to subvitreous Average Price per Carat $5-$500 One of the oldest stones used for jewelry, turquoise has long been prized for its vivid sky blue and blue-green color, often highlighted by an attractive spiderweb of dark veins across the stone. Turquoise doesn’t have the sparkle and clarity of many other blue stones, but its rich color haskept it popular for centuries.When used in jewelry, turquoise is often formed into cabochons or beads. Because it’s a relatively soft stone, it can also be intricately carved for pendants and other jewelry pieces. Where it’s found:There are significant deposits in the Middle East, USA, and China. What sets it apart: It’s opaque blue-green color. How to Pick the Perfect Blue Gemstone Eachof the blue stonesabove has attractive and unique characteristics, but which one is best for you? There are fourcriteria to consider when choosing a gemstone: Price This will likely be the most important factor in picking a blue gem. You may love sapphires but don't want to spend several thousand dollars on a high-quality piece of sapphire jewelry. Browse the price ranges listed for each of the blue stones, keeping in mind that price can vary significantly depending on the size, cut, and quality of a stone. Also, if you're interested in a specific stone that's out of your price range, there are often less expensive but similar-looking alternatives. Tanzanite is often used as a substitute for sapphire, and many aquamarines have a light blue color similar to blue diamonds. If you have your heart set on a specific gemstone, you may be able to find a price within your budget by looking at smaller stones or stones with minor blemishes or discolorations (these are often very difficult or impossible to see with the naked eye). A jeweler can explain the finer points of gemstone pricing if you want more information. Color Blue gemstones come in a wide range of colors, from pale aquasto rich dark blues. Even if you think you already know the colors a particular gemstone comes in, take a look at the color ranges listed above. Many gemstones come in a wider range of colors than you might have expected. Sapphires, for example, are famous for their velvety blue color, but they can also occur in lighter shades of blue. You may be interested in a pure blue stone or a blue gemstone with shades of other colors, such as green or violet. Hardness A gemstone's hardness is another important factor to think about. You should not purchase a piece of jewelry with agemstone that hasa hardness of less than 7.0 if you plan on wearing the jewelry daily because the stone could become scratched or cracked. (An exception is if the stone has been placed in a special setting to protect it from damage.) So, for jewelry like bracelets and rings, that often get bumped, choose a stone with a higher hardness, like sapphire or blue topaz, or only wear the jewelry on special occasions. Softer stones set into earrings or necklaces can be worn more frequently, but you should still be careful to avoid damaging them. Jewelry Types Some gemstones are frequently used in the same types of jewelry. Agate, for example, is often used in necklace pendants, while sapphire's brilliant sparkle and high price mean a single stone is often set into a ring.If you're looking for a particular type of jewelry, you may want to choose a gemstone that's often used for those pieces.

Managerial Applications of Technology (Virtual Workforce) 3 Assignment

Managerial Applications of Technology (Virtual Workforce) 3 - Assignment Example Remote workers need to have proper communication with their colleagues, the managers, and other teams or team members in the organization. Technology also provides support to organize through availing IT services and appliances which makes remote workers more effective. There are a number of advantages of using virtual employees. One advantage is that it reduces the amount of physical space that an organization allocated to its employees. Virtual employees have flexibility which enables such organizations to have flexibility to some extent (Tedesco, 2013). For instance, a virtual employee would not be affected, by any physical disturbance in the organization’s premises. The other thing is that virtual employees can be more productive because of less commuting time. The disadvantage of virtual employees is that they have minimal interactions with their colleagues thus it can be hard for them to work together. It is also hard for an organization to motivate virtual and protect them from distractions. Given that the usage of virtual employees has both advantages and disadvantages it is good to come up with strategies to maximize the advantages and minimize the disadvantages. An organization can do that by improving their communication with the virtual workers to make sure that they feel like a part of the organization. For things like motivation and distraction an organization can organize seminars where they can advise the virtual employees on how to best manage time and avoid distractions. To maximize on their output an organization can set goals for them to meet in certain duration (Amigoni & Gurvis,

Case Analysis on Human Resources at Hewlett Packard Essay

Case Analysis on Human Resources at Hewlett Packard - Essay Example HP Way in conducting its business is based on a set of ethical principles. Honesty and integrity form the very core of this approach. Its customers must be sure of the deals that they make with the company. For this it’s necessary to inculcate ethical principles in HR personnel. Teamwork at HP is emphasized since stakeholders, particularly the shareholders, depend on company’s policy in generating value for all concerned. Thus a sharing responsibility for organizational outcomes among HR personnel would be desirable. The company encourages flexibility and innovation among its employees. Their primary goal should be the development of innovative and flexible ways to carry out daily tasks so that functional processes become smooth. Teamwork enables horizontal communication function to be carried out with a singular focus on organizational goals. While communication structures have been overhauled to support a more democratic and less centralized vertical functional network within the organization there is also a well planned strategy to achieve results. There are both advantages and disadvantages associated with working for a company like HP. In the first place advantages include such benefits like good future prospects, career development, performance related pay, a positive and independent work environment and opportunities for innovation and meaningful contribution. Future prospects lie with the diversity and expansion of the organization (Becker, Andrew & Dave, 2001). A fast growing organization with ever rising net revenues must be any employee’s dream because the future of the company and its employees is basically determined by the current pace of positive progress that the company is making. Career development at HP is possible depending on the scope of the job. High tech companies like HP with a fair degree of diversification into other fields through merger and acquisition (M&A) are more likely to produce positive synergies that would

Difficulties Listeners Face Processing a Foreign Language

Difficulties Listeners Face Processing a Foreign Language INTRODUCTION Recently, listening has gained more and more attention in foreign language learning. In learning a foreign language, it is suggested that the most important step should begin with an effort to listen. (Rubin Thompson, 1994) Listening provides input for learners to make learning occur and listening exercises draw learners attention to new forms in language, such as new vocabulary items. (Rost, 1994) Listening can be regarded as a necessary skill in the diagnosing and preparation of foreign language students and can even be served as a good predictor of language achievement. In consequence, listening comprehension acts as a pivotal role in foreign language learning. (Oxford, 1993) In this essay, three issues are discussed. Issue 1 states listening difficulties in second language acquisition. Underwood (1994), Chiang and Dunkel (1992) and Rubin and Thompson (1994)‘s viewpoint are discussed. Issue 2 proposes taxonomies of the factors affecting listening difficulties. Boyle (1984), Yagang (1993) and Rubin (1994) ‘s point of view of the factors affecting listening comprehension are referred to. Issue 3 mentions studies in listening difficulties of L2 listeners in foreign countries. Tauroza and Allisons (Rubin, 1994) study is about speech rate. Boyle (1984)s study is factors most frequently mentioned in listening comprehension. Lynch (1997)s study is a case study of a intermediate-level learners progress in listening comprehension. Goh (2000)s study discusses listening comprehension problems. Chapter 1 Listening difficulties in second language acquisition Underwoods (1994) point of view Underwood (1994) identified seven potential difficulties in listening comprehension as: (1) lack of control over the speed at which speakers speak, (2) not being able to get things repeated, (3) the listeners limited vocabulary, (4) failure to recognize the signals, (5) problems of interpretation, (6) inability to concentrate, (7) established learning habits. Many language learners believe that the greatest difficulty with listening comprehension is that the listener cannot control how quickly a speaker speaks. (p7) They are so busy working out the meaning of one part of what they hear that they miss the next part. Another difficulty is that listener is not always in a position to get the speaker to repeat an utterance. This is particularly likely to be the case when students are ‘on the edge of conversation outside the classroom. For people listening to a foreign language, an unknown word can be like a suddenly dropped barrier causing them to stop and think about the meaning of the word and thus making them miss the next part of the speech (p 17). And students need to learn to listen for the ‘signals in order to be able to connect the various utterances in the way the speaker intended them to be connected. (p18) Students who are unfamiliar with the context may have considerable difficulty in interpreting the words they hear even if they can understand their ‘surface meaning. (p19). Inability to concentrate can be caused by a number of things, but in listening work it is a majo r problem, because even the shortest break in attention can seriously impair comprehension. (p19) Outside factors may well make concentration difficult, too. An inferior machine or poor recording can make it very hard for the students. As for establishing leaning habits, when the learner can more readily accept the frustrations involved, he will be more prepared to strive for a partial and incomplete understanding of what is being said. (pp16-19) Rubin and Thompsons (1994) point of view Rubin and Thompson list three common problems in learning to listen to a foreign language. The first problem is that the speaker talks too fast. If the listener can not follow the speaker, the listener can let the speaker know that he is not following. He can ask for repetition and slowing down the speed, seeks clarification, rephrase, and repeat. The listener can pay attention to intonation and tone of voice, focus on question words such as who, what and when and assume that the ‘here and ‘now are relevant. That is, the sentence is directly related to the subject they have just been discussing. Assume that what a person says is directly related to something he or she is experiencing at that very minute. The second problem is that the listener is not getting anything out of foreign language TV and movies. If the listener could not understand the foreign language TV and movies, they should try to take control of his listening by predicting what he was likely to hear. For e xample, use visual clues and use his background knowledge. Anticipate information in a segment by relying on your knowledge of what such a segment is likely to contain. Listeners could also use information from the segment itself and determine the genre of the segment. Knowing the genre of a segment will help you determine how best to approach it. For instance, if it is an interview, then concentrate on the questions. If it is a news report, a who, when, where strategy will work best. If it is a drama, look for the story line. Listeners could listen to familiar elements, listen to familiar-sounding words, listen to and jot down repeated words, learn to recognize numbers and learn to recognize proper names. The third problem is that the listener tends to stop listening when he hears an unfamiliar word or phrase. Many learners, particularly in the early stages of language learning, panic and lose their concentration when they hear an unfamiliar segment. As a result, they miss portions of the passage that might have helped clarify the unfamiliar word or segment. The listener should concentrate on familiar elements and keep listening. Understanding something is better than getting nothing at all. If you continue listening, chances are that you will comprehend at least some parts of the massage. It is possible that the portions you missed were not very important after all. Chiang and Dunkels (1992) point of view Chiang and Dunkel (1992) pointed out that listeners comprehension in English may be thwarted by a number of cognitive and linguistic factors as well as academic and cultural issues, including: (a) inability or lack of opportunity to engage in communicative interaction with the second/foreign language teacher or lecture; (b) inability to detect the main points of the lecture or to â€Å" grasp the usual goals of particular genres of discourse situation of which the discourse is a part; (c) unfamiliarity with the structure and type of the discourse ; (d) inability to apprehend discourse markers and logical relationships in the English lecture; (e) inability to comprehend lecture speech delivered at faster rates of speed; (f) limited short-term memory for English input; (g) failure to use appropriate cognitive or learning strategies; (h) poor inference abilities in English; (i) limited proficiency in English; (j) lack of prior knowledge about the content of the spoken or written text; and (k) inability to process L2 input devoid of speech modification such as elaborations or redundancies. Of these difficulties confronting L2 learners, Chiang and Dunkel explored the effect of three of them. The first situation was when the listeners had limited listening proficiency in English, the second situation was when they lacked prior knowledge about the topic of the L2 lecture, and the third situation was when they were not supplied with modified speech. The results revealed a significant interaction between prior knowledge and text type. Chapter 2 Taxonomy of the factors affecting L2 listening difficulties Boyles (1984) three categories of factors Boyle (1984) began with a survey of the factors most frequently mentioned in the literature on listening comprehension, including three categories of factors. The first category referred to the listener factors, including experience in listening to the target language, general background knowledge of the world, educational background and type of school, knowledge of the target language in its various aspects, memory, powers of analysis and selection and motivation and attitude of the listener to the speaker and to the message. The second categories, the speaker factors, contain language ability of the speaker: native speaker—beginning level non-native speaker. Speakers production: pronunciation, accent, variation, voice affect, too. Speed of delivery and prestige and personality of the speaker count. The third category, factors in the material and medium, comprise difficulty of content and concept, especially if the material is abstract, abstruse, highly specialized or technic al, lengthy or poorly organized. Acoustic environment such as noise and interference and amount of support provided by gestures, visuals also have influence on listening comprehension. Yagangs (1993) four aspects of factors Instead of three categories, Yagang (1993) proposed that the sources of listening difficulties came mainly from the four aspects: the message, the speaker, the listener, and the physical setting. The message factors comprised content and linguistic features. In content which is not well organized, listeners cannot predict what speakers are going to say. And if listening materials are made up of everyday conversation, they may contain a lot of colloquial expressions, such as guy for man. Students who have been exposed mainly to formal or bookish English may not be familiar with these expressions. The speaker factors consists of redundant utterances, such as repetitions, false starts, re-phrasings, self-corrections, elaborations, tautologies, apparently meaningless addition such as â€Å" I mean† or â€Å" you know† and speakers personal factors such as their accents. Learners tend to be used to their teaching accent or to the standard variety of British or American Engli sh. They find it hard to understand speakers with other accents. The listener factors played a more important role in EFL students listening. For example, foreign language students might be not familiar enough with clichà © and collocations in English to predict a missing word or phrase. For example, they can not be expected to know that rosy often collocates with cheeks. EFL students might be lack of sociocultural, factual, and contextual knowledge of the target language. (Anderson and Lynch 1988).It can present an obstacle to comprehension because language is used to express its culture. Factors in physical setting included noise, both background noises on the recording and environmental noises, could carry the listeners mind of the content of the listening passage. Listening material on tape or radio lacks visual and aural environmental clues. Not seeing the speakers body language and facial expressions makes it more difficult for the listener to understand the speakers meaning. Unclear sounds resulting from poor quality equipment can interfere with the listeners comprehension. Rubins (1994) five categories of factors Rubin (1994) classified these listening factors into five categories: text, interlocutor, task, listener and process characteristics. Text characteristics referred to acoustic-temporal variables, acoustic-other variables and morphological and syntactic modifications (including restatements). Acoustic-temporal variables are speech rate, pause phenomena, and hesitation. Acoustic-other variables are level of perception, stress and rhythmic patterning perception and L1 and L2 differences. Variables of morphological and syntactic modifications are redundancy, morphological complexity, word order and discourse markers. Text characteristics referred to text type. Visual support for texts is also an important variable. Interlocutor characteristics referred to variations in the speakers personal characteristics, such as gender, pronunciation, accent, expertness and so on. Listener characteristics are listeners language proficiency level, memory, attention, affect, age, gender, learning disabi lities in L1, and background knowledge as well as aptitude, processing skills, background biases, motivation, and confidence level. Process characteristics referred to how listeners interpret input in terms of what they know or identify what they dont know. Top-down, bottom-up and parallel processing is being examined in L2 contexts. Current views of listening comprehension propose that listeners actively process language input. Two types of processing have been discerned: cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies. Research on listening strategies includes: work on several languages; work contrasting strategy use at several proficiency levels; work with interactive or transactional listening; work with cognitive and metacognitive strategies; work considering the relation of strategy use to text, task, and setting. Chapter 3 Studies in listening difficulties of L2 listeners in foreign countries Tauroza and Allisons ( )studyspeech rate Griffiths suggests that different language have different â€Å"normal† rates and the rates defined in studies using English can not be applied exactly to studies of other languages. Most research quotes a normal speech rate of 165 to 180 words per minutes for native speakers of English. On the other hand, while Foulke reports a threshold (the rate at which comprehension begins to decrease rapidly) level between 250-275 w.p.m., others states that comprehension decreases as a function of mental aptitude and difficulty level. Tauroza and Allison compare normal speed of British speakers for four types of speech. They found that while the mean for radio and interview speech events lies within the range of 160 to 190 w.p.m., the means for conversation and lecture categories are outside this range. The mean rate for conversation in words per minute was 210, while for lectures, 140. They note further that thirty-three percent of their lecture data was slower than 130 w.p.m. and twent y-three percent of the conversation data was faster than 220 w.p.m. The issue of normal speech rate is one that still needs a great deal more research that takes into account all of the variables mentioned above. (Rubin, 1994) Boyles (1984) study—factors most frequently mentioned in listening In Boyles (1984) study, 30 teachers and 60 students in Hong Kong were asked to list the six factors which they considered the most important in aiding or hampering the effectiveness of listening comprehension. It was interesting to know that the students gave much more importance to vocabulary than teachers did. It was surprising that the students mentioned two factors, memory and concentration, barely mentioned by the teachers. In addition, the students considered that there was a possible relationship between their reading habits and their listening comprehension, which was not mentioned by the teachers. On the other hand, the teacher seemed to specify the linguistic factors more sophisticatedly. The teacher would specify the factors as ability to pick up clues, complex syntactical structures, stress and intonation and interference from Chinese. On the contrary, the students just indicated that the lack of general language ability or the difficulties in English listening comprehens ion. Lynchs (1997) study—a case study of an intermediate-level learners progress Lynch (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a Japanese student who attended English language courses at the Institute for Applied Language Studies, the only one taking an undergraduate course in economics at the University of Edinburgh. His scores on the listening tests were relatively low in comparison with his reading and grammar scores with the other students in class. A number of possible reasons were found to explain his difficulties in listening comprehension. First, he was the youngest member in his class so that he was unwilling to engage in negotiation with his seniors. Second, he was the only undergraduate student with an economic background in his English class so that he viewed himself as insufficient in some general background knowledge. Third, he joined Course 3 in the EAP program, skipping the basic class, Course 1 and 2. Therefore, he thought he needed more time to get used to negotiate with others in English. Fourth, his lowest listening score disappointed him gr eatly. The perceptions of the subject had made a substantial influence on his English learning. Gohs (2000) study—listening comprehension problems Goh (2000) investigated the comprehension problems of second language listeners in a cognitive perspective. She identified real-time listening difficulties faced by 40 Chinese undergraduates and examined their difficulties within the three-phase model of language comprehension proposed by Anderson. (1995). The data were collected from learners self-reports in their diaries, semi-structure interviews and immediate retrospective verbalizations. The data revealed 10 problems that occurred during the cognitive process phases of perception, parsing, and utilization. She also, made a comprehension between two groups, high ability listeners and low ability listeners. Each group consisted of eight students selected according to their grades in a post-instruction standardized proficiency test, the SLEP test of Educational Testing Service 1991. She found that listeners with highly ability and low ability both had a perception problem with recognizing words they knew. Another problem they both shared was parsing problem that they quickly forgot what they thought they had understood. In addition to these two problems, high ability listeners reported a utilization problem that they were often unable to extract the meaning out of the message even if they had understood all the words. On the other hand, low ability listeners reported another perception problem that they often did not hear the next part of a text because they spent too much time thinking about what they had just heard. REFERENCES Boyle, J.P. (1984). Factors affecting listening comprehension. ELT Journal, 38 (1), 34-38 Chiang, C.S. Dunkel, P. (1992). The effect of speech modification, prior knowledge, and listening proficiency in EFL lecture learning. TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 345-374 Goh, C.C.M. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners listening comprehension problem. System, 28(1), 55-75. Lynch. (1997). Life in the slow lane: Observations of a limited L2 listener. System, 25 (3), 385-398 Oxford, R. (1993). Research update in L2 listening. System, 21(2), 205-211. Rost, M. (1994). Introducing listening. London: Penguin. Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research. Modern language Journal, 78(2), 199-217 Rubin, J. Thompson, I. (1994) How to be a more successful language learner: Toward learning autonomy. MA: Heinle Heinle Publishers. Underwood, M. (1994). Teaching listening. Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers. Yagang, F. (1993).Listening: problems and solutions. English Teaching Forum, 31 (2), 16-19

Paddy Power Plc

Paddy Power Plc Introduction My name is Maureen Hogan and I am doing a level 6 advanced administration and my assignment is to research Paddy Powers Bookmakers Plc Aims * A brief history of t organisation * Organisation type, and sector in which it operates * A detailed analysis of the organisation goals and objectives * Particular attention should be given to the customer service policy of the organisation * An organisation chart and comment on whether it has Flat or Tall management structure * Analysis of its products, services, locations, pricing and marketing strategy * Profile of competitors Construct a SWOT analysis for the organisation and explain the points you make * Construct a PESTS analysis for the organisation and points raised here need to be explained also History Paddy Power is a fourth generation Irish bookmaker his great grandfather Richard, started the family business back in 1898 from his native Tramore Co. Waterford. Richard Power business grew to become one of t he most respected and well known bookmakers in Ireland.Paddy’s grandfather, Paddy, then took over the family business and passed it in turn on to Paddy’s father David. In the 1980s betting tax in Ireland was halved which caused an influx of the big UK betting firms. This put the Irish bookmakers under fierce competitive pressure and it was in this time that David Power merged his family betting shops with John Corcoran of Patrick Corcoran bookmakers and Stewart Kenny of Kenny O’Reilly bookmakers.The Power name was retained due to it’s resonance with Irish punters, and Paddy name was used to emphasise the company’s origins. Paddy spent his school holidays working for his father at various Irish racecourses, and in summers marking the boards in many Paddy Power betting shops. After graduating from Dublin City University Paddy started working full time for the company where he now holds the position of Communications Director. Paddy is one of the best known bookmakers today with regular appearances on TV and radio across the UK and Ireland. Organisation